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Gen info
- Ophiopogon is a genus of evergreen perennial plants native to warm temperate to tropical East, Southeast, and South Asia. Despite their grass-like appearance, they are not related to true grasses, the Poaceae. Formerly classified in Liliaceae, the APG III classification system placed it in the family Asparagaceae.
(47)
- Etymology: The genus name Ophiopogon derives from Greek ophis, meaning "snake" and pogon, meaning "beard", likely referring to the leaves and its tufted growth. (47)
 Botany
• Mondo grass is a low, stemless, glamorous,
grass-like, perennial herb with large stolons with tuberous roots. Leaves are leathery,
narrow-linear, 20 to 30 centimeters long, gracefully arching and dark green. Flowers
are small, drooping, violet-purple to lilac or white, borne on erect
racemes up to 8 centimeters long. Fruit is a blue berry, 5 millimeters in diameter.
• Ophiopogon japonicus is an evergreen, sod-forming perennial plant; an underground species with large stolons with tuberous roots. Leaves are linear, 20–40 cm long. Flowers are white through pale lilac, borne in a short raceme on a 5- to 1-cm stem. Fruit is a blue berry, 5 mm in diameter. (48)
Distribution
- Recently introduced
in the Philippines.
- Cultivated, not naturalized. (36)
- According to Plants of the World Online: native.
(15)
- Used as ground cover.
- Native to China , Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Vietnam. (15)
Constituents
• Study
yielded five new homoisoflavonoids from the extract of tuber of O. japonicus - ophiopogonanone C, ophiopogonanone D, ophiopogonone C, ophiopogonanone E, and ophiopogonanone F, plus six other compounds.
• Study
isolated a new phenolic glycoside, ophiopojaponin D, with two other known compounds, from the tuber.
• Study of flowers yielded eleven compounds viz., beta-sitosterol (1), diosgenin (2), daucosterol (3), ophiopogonin C' (4), dioscin (5), 7-dihy-droxy-6-methyl-3-(4'-hydroxybenzyl) chroman-4-one(6), luteolin (7), kaempferol-3-O-beta-D-glucopyranosides (8), kaempferol-3-O-(6"-tigloyl) -beta-D-glucopyranosides (9), kaempferol-3-O-(6"-acetyl) -beta-D-glucopyranosides (10), glucose (11). (16)
• Study isolated two new and six known steroidal glucosides from the tuber of Ophiopogon japonicus viz. (20R,25R)-26-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-3β,26-dihydroxycholest-5-en-16,22-dioxo-3-O-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-β-d-glucopyranoside (1) and 26-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(25R)-furost-5-en-3β,14α,17α,22α,26-pentaol-3-O-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-β-d-glucopyranoside (3). (17)
- Nutritional analysis showed tubers are rich in carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, and amino acids. (see study below) (19)
- Study of tubers for liposoluble components isolated 16 compounds consisting of 7 homoisoflavones, 2 anthraquinones, 3 phenolic acids, 2 terpenes and 2 fatty acids. Structures were identified as methyl-ophiogonanone A (1), methylophiopogonanone B (2), methylophiopogonone A (3), methylophiopogonone B (4), 2'hydroxy methylophiopogonone A (5), 6-aldehydoisophiopogonanone A (6), 5, 7 dihydroxy 8 methoxy 6 methyl 3 (2′ hydroxy 4′ methoxybenzyl)chroman 4 one (7), chrysophenol (8), emodin (9), vanillic acid (10), P hydroxy benzaldenhyde (11), P trans coumarinic acid (12), l borneol β D glucopyranoside (13), oleanolia acid (14), azelaic acid (15) and n tricosanoic acid (16). (25)
- Study isolated a new steroidal glycoside, named ophiopojaponin C (1), along with two known ones. Spectroscopic and chemical evidence showed the structures to be ophiopogenin 3‐O‐[α‐L‐rhamnopyranosyl(1→2)]‐β‐D‐xylopyranosyl(1→4)‐β‐D‐glucopyranoside (1), diosgenin 3‐O‐[2‐O‐acetyl‐α‐L‐rhamnopyranosyl(1→2)]‐β‐D‐xylopyranosyl(1->3)‐β‐D‐glucopyranoside (2), and ruscogenin 1‐O‐[2‐O‐acetyl‐α‐L‐rhamnopyranosyl (1->2)]‐β‐D‐xylopyranosyl (1->3)‐β‐D‐fucopyranoside (3). (28)
- GC-MS analysis for essential oil yielded 0.085%, containing monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes as main constituents. Major constituents were Longi-folene (18.5%), ß-patchoulene (9.6%), guaia
(5.2%), cyperene (2.6%), α-patchoulene (1.8%), humulene (1.8%) among others. (35)
- Study of active fractions of roots isolated one novel spirostan, ophiogenin (1), together with six known spirostans (4-8, 10), one new sesquiterpene glycoside, ophioside A (2), and one known monoterpene glycoside (9). Ophiogoponol (3), a new natural compound, an aglycone of compound 2, was isolated from the acid hydrolysis of 2. (see study below) (41)
Properties
-
Considered tonic and tranquilizing.
- According to Chinese herbal materia medica, the herb is sweet, slightly bitter, and slightly cold; enters the heart, lung, and stomach channels; nourishes the yin of stomach, spleen, heart and lungs.
(48)
- Main components which include steroidal saponins, homoisoflavonoids and polysaccharides have exhibited pharmacological activities viz., cardiovascular protection, anti-inflammation, anticancer, anti-oxidation, immunomodulation, cough relief, antimicrobial and antidiabetes.
(22)
- Studies have suggested anti-thrombotic, anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, antiangiogenesis, radical scavenging, hypolipidemic, anti-senescence, hepato-nephroprotective, age-delaying, immunoregulatory, anti-pancreatic cancer properties.
Parts utilized
Rhizomes, leaves and
roots.
 Uses
Edibility
- Mucilaginous roots report to be edible. While some report it as sweet and aromatic, it has been reported as bitter. (23)
- Herbal tea formulation for age-delaying effect. (27)
Folkloric
- No reported folkloric
medicinal use in the Philippines.
- In China,
traditionally used as anti-inflammatory. Also, as tonic and tranquilizer, treatment of cough, insomnia, diabetes, constipation, and diphtheria.
- Also, used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat sicca-associated disorders and cardiovascular disease. Used to nourish yin, promote production of body fluids, moisten the lungs, ease the mind, and clear away heart fire. (22) Essential oil used for treatment of sore throat, cough, and heart disease. (35)
- Used as antiseptic for healing of mouth sores.
- Used for cough suppression.
- Used to stimulate milk in nursing mothers.
Others
• Six Juice Drinks: A Chinese concoction called "six juice drinks"
for diabetes, has O. japonicus as a herbal constituent.
• Agroforestry:
Considered a good ground cover or carpeting plant, and for preventing soil erosion. (23)
Studies
• Anti-thrombotic:
Study of the ethanol extract
of Radix Ophiopogon japonicus showed in-vivo inhibitory effects on venous
thrombosis probably from its endothelial cell-protective and anti-adhesive
activities, supporting the therapeutic use of the plant for thrombotic
diseases. (1) Study evaluated the antithrombotic and thrombolytic activity of a fermented extract of O. japonicus in thrombosis-induced rats. Results showed clotting time, bleeding time, PT and APTT were prolonged in the middle-dose group more than the control and thrombosis groups, thereby, suggesting antithrombotic and thrombolytic effects. (30)
• Anti-thrombotic / Ruscogenin / Ophiopogonin D: Study showed the aqueous extract of Radix Ophiopogon japonicus exerted significant anti-thrombotic activity and ruscogenin and ophiopogonin D are the two active components.
• Anti-Inflammatory: Study of
the Radix O. japonicus extract yielded two active components, ruscogenin
and ophiopogonin D, and showed remarkable anti-inflammatory activity
supporting its traditional use in inflammatory diseases. (2)
• Diabetes: A Chinese study on
the root tubers of O japonicus significantly lowered blood sugar of
normal and alloxan-diabetic mice. In combination with Ginseng, there
was blood sugar reduction in alloxan-induced diabetes but no significant
effect in normal mice. (3)
• Sjogren's Syndrome: SS is an autoimmune disorder with lymphocytic infiltration of salivary and lacrimal glands, xerostomia, keratoconjunctivitis sicca. Th1/Th2 imbalance has been shown to have a role in its pathogenesis. In an autoallergic mouse model for SS, results provided a basis for the use of Ophiopogon japonicus for Sjogren's syndrome. (4)
• Homoisoflavonoids / Radical Scavenging Effects: Study yielded 10 homoisoflavonoids from O japonicus extracts with the majority showing radical scavenging effects.(5)
• Anti-Myocardial Ischemia: O japonicus polysaccharide from Radix ophiogonis has shown antimyocardial activity. This study on a series of sulfated FOJ-5 (FOJ-5-S) showed that when the degree of substitution was in a certain range, the FOJ-5-S had excellent anti-myocardial ischemic activity. (6)
• Cardiovascular Benefit / Anti-Ischemic / Angiogenesis: Study showed a water soluble b-D-fructan (MDG) from OJ had remarkable anti-ischemic activity and protects cardiomyocyte and HMEC-1 cells from ischemic-induced cell damage through cytoprotective and proangiogenic effects via the S1P/bFGF/Akt/ERK/eNOS signaling pathway. (10)
• Shengmai San / Hypolipidemic / Anti-lipid Peroxidation: SMS is a traditional Chinese medicine composed of Panax ginseng, Schisandra chinensis and Ophiopogon japonicus used for treating coronary heart disease. Study showed that SMS may reduce hepatic lipids and lipid peroxidation in rats. (11)
• Anti-Inflammatory Homoflavonoids / Roots: Tuberous roots yielded two new homoisoflavonoids, named ophiopogonone E and ophiopogonanone H, together with 13 known ones. Compounds 2, 4, 6, 7, 10, 11 showed potent inhibitory effects on NO production. (14)
• MDG-1 / Anti-Diabetic Mechanisms: MDG-1, a water-soluble ß-D-fructan polysaccharide from O. japonicus, has been used in the treatment of experimental T2DM. Fecal metabonomic study investigated the mechanism of MDG-1 in a spontaneous diabetic model. Findings suggest MDG-1 actions against diabetes may be through absorbable monosugars and butanedioic acid via suppression of intestinal glucose absorption, enhancement of liver glycogenesis, inhibition of glycogenolysis and promotion of GLP-1 secretion. It can also alleviate diabetes and diabetic nephropathy by reducing 7H-purine and 2'-deoxyinosine. (18)
• MDG-1 / Anti-Diabetic Mechanisms/ α-glucosidase inhibitory: Study analyzed the nutritional composition of OJ tubers, antioxidant and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities. The n-butanol fraction and chloroform/methanol extract of tubers showed high amounts of total phenolic and flavonoid contents
and exhibited good α-glucosidase inhibition (higher than acarbose) and antioxidant activities. (19)
• Antioxidant / Antifatigue: Study evaluated the antioxidant and antifatigue potential of Ophiopogon japonicus extracts in exercised Sprague Dawley rats. The extract contained polyphenols, flavonoids, and polysaccharides. OJE was able to significantly scavenge DPPH radicals in a concentration-dependent manner. The extract also significantly extended endurance time of treadmill running to exhaustion, decreased lactate and serum urea nitrogen contents, together with amelioration of biochemical parameters related to fatigue in the exercise rat model. (20)
• MDG-1 / Hypoglycemic / PI3K/Akt Pathway: Study evaluated the effects of a water-soluble-ß-D-fructan (MDG-1) from O. japonicus on T2DM through the PI3K/akt pathway in a diabetic KKAy mouse model. Results showed MDG-1 reduced the hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia and hyperlipidemia in the KKAy mice. It showed remarkable anti-diabetic activity through the InsR/IRS-1/PI3K/Akt/GSK-3/Glut=4 signaling pathway. (21)
• Effect on Chemotherapy Induced Bone Marrow Depression / P. ginseng and O. japonicus: Study evaluated the effects of combination of Panax ginseng and Ophiopogon japonicus (PG-OJ) herbs at different ratios on myelosuppression induced by chemotherapy in mice. Myelosuppression was induced by IP injection of cyclophosphamide (CTX). Measured parameters were numbers of bone marrow nucleated cells and peripheral blood cells, along with thymus and spleen indices. The PG-OJ herb pair with a ration of 2:3 showed excellent synergistic effect on myelosuppression induced by CTX. Study suggests that rare ginsenosides and ophiopogonin D may be the main constituents involved in the treatment of bone marrow suppression after chemotherapy. (24)
• Steroidal Saponin / Protective Effect Against Cisplatin-Induced Renal Cell Toxicity / Tubers: Study of tubers isolated a new furostanol saponin, ophiopogonin T. The compound was evaluated for cytotoxic effect on cancer cell lines and protective effect against anticancer drug-induced nephrotoxicity. Results showed treatment with ophiopogonin T significantly reduced cisplatin-induced cytotoxicity in porcine kidney. (26)
• Amelioration of Oxidative Stress / Age-Delaying Effect / Herbal Tea: Study evaluated the antioxidant activity and longevity-promoting potential of O. japonicus herbal tea using Caenorhabditis elegans model. By DPPH scavenging assay, OJT showed scavenging of free radicals. OJT increased the survival rate of nematodes and reduced the endogenous levels of ROS under oxidative stress induced by paraquat. Results showed antioxidant activity and age-delaying effect of OJT, which may provide insights into the potential of O. japonicus for health promotion. (27)
• Oligofructans / Reduction of Atopic Dermatitis Flare-Ups / Clinical Trial: Atopic dermatitis is a chronic relapsing inflammatory skin disease affecting 15-2-% of children and 2-10% of adults worldwide. This randomized, single-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter clinical trial was conducted in a cohort of 90 Caucasian children and 144 adults with mild-to-moderate atopic dermatitis. A natural ingredients from O. japonicus improved patient's quality of life and significantly reduced the number of relapses in patients compared to placebo. Results suggest the treatment could be effective in controlling mild-to-moderate atopic dermatitis between flare-ups. (29)
• Homoisoflavonoids / Antioxidant / Roots: Study of root extract identified 17 different homoisoflavonoid compounds with two major compounds identified as methylophiopogonanone A and methylophiopogonanone B. methylophiopogonanone B exhibited highest antioxidant ability by various in-vitro assays. Among the extracts, the chloroform/methanol extract which contained high amounts of homoisoflavonoids showed strongest antioxidant activity. Results suggest O. japonicus can be a potential source of homoisoflavonoids and natural antioxidant. (31)
• Release-Controlling Enteral Absorption Enhancement / Sodium Caprate: Study evaluated how to improve the intestinal absorption of O. japonicus polysaccharide by incorporating it together with sodium caprate into erodible matrices, designed to release OJP and SC at various rates over different periods of time. (32)
• Steroidal Saponin / Cardioprotective / Amelioration of Doxorubicin-Induced Heart Failure: Study evaluated the cardioprotective effects of steroidal saponins extract from OJ roots against doxorubicin-induced chronic heart failure in Sprague-Dawley rat model of CHF. Results showed a cardioprotective effect against DOX-induced CHF through suppression of inflammation and oxidative stress. (33)
• Exopolysaccharides / Inhibition of Proliferation and Migration in MC-4 Human Gastric Cancer Cells: Study investigated the antitumor activity of exopolysacchardies (EPSs) extracted from endophytes in O. japonicus. The endophyte bacterium MD4 was isolated from O. japonicus. MD4 was identified as a Staphylococcus sp. with 99% similarity. The MD4 endophyte acted as natural antitumor agents to inhibit the migration of gastric cancer cells. (34)
• Roots for Age-Related Disease: Ophiopogonis Radix, which nourishes the yin, has been used to promote fluid secretion and to moisturize the lungs and skin in traditional Chinese and Japanese medicine. Study investigated the anti-chronic-inflammatory effect of Ophiopogonis Radix (OR) on senescent cells. Permanent low-grade inflammation in the elderly population and long-term accumulation of cellular senescence can be responsible for age-related diseases. Thus, cellular senescence may be a therapeutic target or age-related inflammatory diseases. The Chinese and Japanese OR was prepared from the enlarged part of the root. Methanol extracts and main constituents (methylophiopogonanone A, methylophiopogonanone B, ophiopogonanone A, and ophiopogonin B) significantly downregulated expression of IL-6 and IL-8 and decreased IL-6 production in a strong and concentration dependent manner. Results suggest OR can be effective for chronic inflammation associated with aging. (37)
• Antidiabetic / Hypoglycemic / Root Polysaccharide: Study of roots extracted and purified a water-soluble polysaccharide (OJP1). Pharmaceutical experiments showed the OJP1 can significantly reduce blood glucose level, increase insulin level and remediate destruction of pancreatic islets in STZ-induced diabetic rats. Results showed OJP1 has potential use as an anti-diabetic agent. (38)
• Anticancer / Mechanisms / Review: In vitro and in vivo studies have shown OJ and its compounds exhibit potential anticancer effects in a variety of cancer cells in vitro and suppress tumor growth and metastasis without serious invivo toxicity. O. japonicus extracts and compounds, such as ruscogenin-1-O-[ß-D-glucopyranosyl(1-->2)][ß-D-xylopyranosyl(1-->30]-ß-D-fucopyranoside(DT-13), ophiopogonin B, and ophiopogonin D, exert potential anticancer effects, including induction of cell cycle arrest, activation of apoptosis and autophagy, and inhibition of metastasis and angiogenesis. Review also highlights application of the compounds in immunotherapy and combination chemotherapy (39)
• Antioxidant / Immunoregulatory / Polysaccharide Liposome / Roots: Study evaluated the antioxidant and immunoregulatory activities of ophiopogon polysaccharide liposome (OPL) from roots of O. japonicus. The radical scavenging activity increased along with increasing OPL concentrations. The scavenging activity of OPL was slightly stronger than OP in vitro. In vivo, the OPL at medium and high doses could significantly improve the levels of SOD and GSH-Px, and decrease the levels of MPO, XOD, and MDA compared with OP. Results indicate the antioxidant and immunoregulatory effects of OP were significantly enhanced after encapsulation with liposome. Results suggest potential for OPL as a new-type functional food as both medicine and food. (40)
• Effect on Tube Formation in Human Myocardial Microvascular Endothelial Cells / Roots: Study evaluated the macroporous resin adsorption of extracts from the fibrous roots of O. japonicus in human myocardial microvascular endothelial cell line (HMMEC) bared assay. Study of active fractions of roots isolated one novel spirostan, ophiogenin (1), together with six known spirostans (4-8, 10), one new sesquiterpene glycoside, ophioside A (2), and on(42)e known monoterpene glycoside (9). Ophiogoponol (3), a new natural compound, an aglycone of compound 2, was isolated from the acid hydrolysis of 2. Results showed compounds 4 and 8 could significantly improved tube formation, and compound 2 showed moderate increasing effect, while compound 5 exhibited potent inhibitory effect. (41)
• Regulation of Autophagy on Tube Formation in Human Myocardial Microvascular Endothelial Cells / Roots: Ophiopogon japonicus possesses remarkable anti-cancer activity. Studies have indicated flavonoids (FOJ) and steroidal saponins (SSOJ) as the main active constituents. Study evaluated the effects of FOJ and SSOJ on autophagy of A59 cells. Results showed expressions of autophagy-related mediators (LC3-II/LC3-I ration, Atg-3, Atg-7 and Beclin-1) were increased in A549 cells by treatment with FOJ and SSOJ. Results suggest FOJ and SSOJ could activated autophagy of A549 cells, wherein the mechanism may be via inhibition of P13K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway. Results suggest FOJ and SSOJ could be a potential autophagy inducer to prevent the process of lung cancer. (42)
• Induced Autophagy in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer / Inhibition of P13K/Akt Signaling Pathway: Study showed non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cell lines NCI-H157 and NCI-H460 treated with OP-B grow more slowly and accumulates vacuoles in their cytoplasm. Flow cytometric analysis showed arrest of cells in G0/G1 phase. Results suggest OP-B treatment induced autophagy in both cell lines. The OP-B inhibited phosphorylation of Akt [Ser473, Thr308] in NCI-H157 cells and inhibited several key components of the pathway in NCI-H460 cells. Study suggests OP-B is a potential inhibitor of P13K/Akt and may be an alternative compound to treat NSCLC. (43)
• Effect in Sjogren's Syndrome: Sjogren's syndrome (SS) is an autoimmune disorder characterized by lymphocytic infiltration of salivary and lacrimal glands leading to xerostomia and keratoconjunctivitis sicca. It is the second most common autoimmune rheumatic disease. In an SS model of immunized C57BL/6 mice of inbred strains with submandibular gland (SMG) autoantigen, study evaluated salivary flow, histological changes in SMG, serum levels of IFN-γ and IL-4, and simple measures of body weight, food intake, and water intake for the effect of OHP on the SS model. Results showed immunization with SMG autoantigen induced decreased salivary flow and body weight, increased water intake SMG index, spleen index, IFN-γ and IFN-γ/IL-4 rations. Study provided basis for use of OJ in SS. (44)
• Hepato- and Nephro-Protective Effect against Diabetic Injury / Root Polysaccharide: Study evaluated the effect of OJP1, a polysaccharide isolated from the roots of OJ on blood lipid metabolism, antioxidant activity, and protective effect on the liver and kidneys of diabetic rats. Results showed OJP1 significantly reduced the MDA concentration and increased the activity of both GPx and SOD in serum, liver, and kidneys of diabetic rats. Values of TG, TC, LDL-C, and HDL-C in diabetic rats were significantly reversed. The OJP1 can alleviate liver and kidney injuries in diabetic rats. The mRNA expression of transforming growth factor-ß1 (TGF-ß1) and connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) decreased significantly after OJP1. Results suggest antioxidant and hepato- and nephro-protection from diabetic injuries. (46)
• Cardioprotective on Isoproterenol-Induced Myocardial Ischemia / Polysaccharide: Study evaluated the cardioprotective effect of OJP1 (polysaccharide) from root of O. japonicus on isoproterenol (ISO)-induced myocardial ischemia in rats. Pretreatment with OJP1 (100, 200, and 300 mg/kg) significantly reduced ISO-induced ST-segment elevation and heart index, attenuated the lever of marker enzymes (AST, LDH, CK, AND CK-MB), along with significant enhanced activities of ATPases. Pretreatment enhanced activities of SOD, GPx and CAT in serum and myocardium, and decreased the level of MDA. Biochemical and histopathological studies showed alleviation of myocardial injury by ISO. Results suggest significant cardioprotective effect probably via enhancement of endogenous antioxidants. (49)
• Anticancer / Human Lung Cancer Cells: Study evaluated the effects of OJ against NCI-H1299 human lung cancer cells and the underlying mechanisms using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-quadruple time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC/Q-TOF-MS)-based cell metabolics. Results showed OH inhibited the proliferation, induced the apoptosis and suppressed the migration of NCI-H1299 cells. Metabolites were involved in three metabolic pathways, including glycerophospholipid metabolism, ether lipid metabolism, and glutathione metabolism. Study suggests cell-metabolomics-based strategies are promising tools to explore the mechanisms of OJ against lung cancer cells. (50)
• Regulation of Gut Microbiota and SCFA Metabolic Disorder / OJP-W1 / Root Polysaccharide: Study isolated a homogenous polysaccharide fraction, OJP-W1. Study evaluated the therapeutic effects of OJP-W1 in diabetes symptoms, gut microbiota and metabolism of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in high-fat diet (HFD)-induced type-2 diabetic mice. OJP-W1 significantly ameliorated HFD-induced insulin resistance and glucose tolerance. It regulated the gut microbiota dysbiosis in HFD-fed mice and improved the metabolic disorder of short-chain fatty acid in high fat diet (HFD)-fed mice. Study suggests OJP-W1 has potential as a novel functional food in preventing diabetes-associated gut microbiota dysbiosis and SCFA metabolic disorder. (51)
• Anti-Pancreatic Cancer / Galactan / Roots: Study of roots isolated a galactan ROH05 from the roots of O. japonicus. An acetylated galactan, ROH05A was prepared by acetic anhydride-pyridine method. Bioactivity testing showed the ROH05A might inhibit both BxPC-3 and PANC-1 pancreatic cancer cells growth in a dose-dependent manner without significant toxicity to LO2 cells. Cells apoptosis was triggered while p53, p21, Bax expression were upregulated by ROH05A as well. (52)
Availability
- Cultivated.
- Teas and root powder extracts in the cybermarket.
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