 Gen info
- Chrysopogon is a genus of tropical and subtropical plants in the grass family. They are widespread across Eurasia, Africa, Australia, southeastern North America, and various islands.
- Chrysopogon zizanioides, commonly known as vetiver and khus, is a perennial bunchgrass of the family Poaceae. Vetiver is most closely related to Sorghum but shares many morphological characteristics with other fragrant grasses like lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus), citronella (Cymbopogon nardus), and palmarosa (Cymbopogon martinii). (26)
- Etymology: Vetiver is derived from Tamil, vettiver meaning "root that is dug up",
via French vetyver. (26)
Botany
Moras is a coarse, erect, tufted perennial, growing 1 to 2 meters high. Roots are fibrous and fragrant. Leaves are arranged in two rows, about 1 meter long, 1 centimeters or less in width, and folded. Panicles are terminal, erect, purple or greenish, about 20 centimeters long; the branches are slender, whorled, spreading or ascending, 5 to 12 centimeters long. Sessile spikelets are about 4 millimeters long and muricate; the awn of the fourth glume is very short or absent.
Distribution
- Introduced into the Philippines.
-
Widely distributed in the settled regions of the Philippines.
- Commonly planted on dikes of rice paddies and on river banks to prevent erosion.
- Native to Andaman Is., Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam.
- Now pantropic.
 Constituents
- Yields an oil known as vetiver oil; also, as cuscus.
- Vetiver oil yields various substances: vetivenes, vetivenol, vetivenic acid, vetivenyl acetate and other similar compounds.
- Study of roots yielded khusimol (2) together with other sesquiterpenes, including ß-vetivenene (1), vetiselinenol (3), isovalencenol (4), vetivenic acid (5), α-vetivone (6) and β-vetivone (7). (see study below)
(10)
- Study of essential oil identified 25 compounds. Major components were cedr-8-en-13-ol (12.4%), α-amorphene (7.80%), β-vatirenene (5.94%) and α-gurjunene (5.91%). (see study below)
(11)
- Study of roots for essential oil yielded sesquiterpenes (3-4%), sesquiterpenols (18-25%), and sesquiterpenones (7-8%). Economically active compounds were khusimol, α-vetivone and ß-vetivone which constitute about 35% of the oil. (16)
- GC-MS analysis of essential oil yielded major components of khusimol (19.57%), E-isovalencenol (13.24%), α-vetivone (5.25%), ß-vetivone (4.87%), and hydroxy-valencene (4.64%). (see study below) (17)
- Study of roots by steam distillation yielded an essential oil composed mainly of sesquiterpenes (3-4%), sesquiterpenols (18-25%), and sesquiterpenes (7-8%). Among the economically important active compounds are khusimol, α-vetivone, and ß-vetivone constituting about 35% of the oil. (25)
- Study reports on the chemical composition of EOs of V. zizanioides from nine countries. GC-MS analyses identified 110 constituents, mainly sesquiterpenes. The characteristic constituents were
ß-vetispirene (1.6-4.5%), khusimol (3.4-13.7%), vetiselinenol (1.3-7.8%), and α-vetinone (2.5-6.3%). (28)
- GC-MS analysis and in silico activity prediction of phytocompounds
of crude methanolic root extract identified 41 compounds with sesquiterpenes as the major group. Sesquiterpene vetivenic acid showed maximum peak of 38.9%, with a good bioavailability score of 85%. (33)
Properties
- Root reported as cooling, carminative, diaphoretic, diuretic, emmenagogue, refrigerant, tonic, stomachic.
- Studies suggest hypnotic, sedative, antispasmodic, antimicrobial, repellent, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, anti-leishmanial, anti-spasmodic and hypoglycemic, phytoremediative properties.
Parts used
Roots, essential oil, leaves.
 Uses
Edibility
- Oil from roots used for flavoring sherbets, syrups, and fruit drinks.
Folkloric
- Decoction of roots used for tonic baths.
- Decoction of roots taken internally as a lithotripic - to dissolve or break kidney stones.
- Roots used for thirst, inflammation, acne, stomach irritability.
- Weak infusion of roots used for fever.
- In Ayurveda, different plant parts used for various ailments and diseases, including boils, burns, epilepsy, fever, scorpion stings, snakebites, mouth sores, headaches, lumbago, malarial fever.
- Essential oil of vetiver used in aromatherapy for relieving stress, anxiety, nervous tension, and insomnia.
- Root used as carminative, stimulant, and diaphoretic.
- Root decoction taken internally for nervous and circulatory problems. Externally, used for tonic baths, muscle pains and treating lice.
- In West Bengal, root paste used for headache, rheumatism, and sprains. Stem decoction used for urinary tract infection. In Madhya Pradesh, the Mandla and Bastar tribes used the leaf juice as anthelmintic. In Varanasi, root vapor inhaled for malarial fever. (24)
Others
- Crafts / Weaving: Roots used for weaving fans, baskets, and making fragrant mats. Dried culms used for making brooms and to thatch roofs. Flower stalks are used in making mats, and occasionally, brooms. Leaves sometimes made into awnings and sunshades.
- Perfume: Prized for its agreeable odor, akin to that of sandal wood. Dried roots used to perfume clothes. Shavings used for filling sachet bags.
- Vetiver oil: Vetiver oil is a constituent of high-grade perfumes and cosmetics. Used for making agarbattis, massage blends, soaps, soft drinks, pan masala. (•) Oil is mixed in sorbets and beverages as flavoring agent. Oil claimed to have an aphrodisiac effect. (23) Vetiver oil is also known as Oil of Tranquility, with a fragrance all of its own, and with no synthetic substitute. Annual world trade in vetiver oil is estimated around 250 tons (about $20-200 million a year). Main producers are are Haiti, Indonesia, China, Japan, India, and Brazil, while main consumers are USA, Europe, India, and Japan. (25)
- Phytotechnology
: A super-absorbent and deep rooted perennial grass with use for landfill rehabilitation, erosion, and leachate control. Also recommended for rehabilitation of mining areas. (33)
- Planting uses: Harvested leaves, culms, and roots utilized after processing as mulch, compost, nursery block of planting medium.
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Fodder: Young leaves grazed by cattle and sheep.
- Construction / Industrial products:
Used for roof thatching, vetiver-clay composites, veneer-fiber board, ash for concrete work, straw bales, pulp and paper products.
Studies
• Antihypertensive / Antispasmodic: Study of aqueous-methanolic crude extract of A muricatus showed a cardiodepressant effect on the rate and force of spontaneous contractions. In isolated rabbit jejunal preparations, it showed a relaxation of spontaneous and high K-induced contractions, suggesting a spasmolytic effect mediated possibly through calcium channel-blockade. Phytochemical screening yielded phenols, saponins, tannins, and terpenes, which may be responsible for the cardiodepressant, vasodilator and antispasmodic effects. (1)
• Anti-Inflammatory: Study showed that A. muricatus extract possesses anti-inflammatory property by inhibiting serotonin, histamine and prostaglandin biosynthesis.(2)
• Termite Repellent and Toxicant / Nootkatone: Study isolated nootkatone which was found to be a significant repellent and toxicant of termites. Nootkatone is an effective repellent or toxicant either alone or as an addition to other substrates, including mulches made from vetiver grass roots or other wood products. It is non-toxic to humans and environmentally safe. (3)
• Phytoremediation of Arsenic-Contaminated Soils: A greenhouse study evaluated the capacity of vetiver grass to accumulate arsenic from pesticide-contaminated soils. Results showed vetiver is capable of tolerating moderate levels of arsenic. High biomass, widespread root system and environmental tolerance makes it an attractive choice for remediation of soils contaminated with arsenic. (7)
• Antimicrobial / Roots: Study of roots yielded khusimol (2) together with other sesquiterpenes (1, 3-7). Kushimol was slightly active against tested microorganisms. (see constituents above). (10)
• Essential Oil / Anti-Inflammatory / Antioxidant: Study of essential oil yielded 25 compounds. VZEO may suppress inflammatory responses of LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages, including NO production and cell apoptosis, by regulating expression of inflammation-related enzymes, inducible NO synthase and COX-2 and inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, interleukin-1ß and interferon-ß. The anti-inflammatory activity correlated with its antioxidant activity. (see constituents above) (11)
• Decontamination of Irrigation Water: Study evaluated the phytoremediation potential of Vetiver grass in decontaminating leachate from conventional agricultural irrigation. Analysis of water and leachates indicated the species significantly decreased the concentration of some chemicals such as nitrates, nitrites, and phosphates. (12)
• Anti-Diabetic / Roots: Study evaluated C. zizanioides roots extracts in STZ-induced diabetic Wistar rats. Results showed significant improved glycemic control, antioxidant and hypolipidemic properties, together with protective effect against hepatic and renal injury associated with diabetes. (13)
• Synergistic Sedative-Hypnotic Effects: Study evaluated the sedative-hypnotic effects of two dose levels of ethanolic extract and one dose of essential oil of VZ root. Ethanolic extract and essential oil showed significant sedation and hypnosis in Swiss albino mice. Findings show comparable therapeutic efficacy with diazepam in insomnia. (14)
• Phytoremediation for Tetracycline: Study evaluated the potential of vetiver grass as phytoremediative agent in removing tetracycline from aqueous media. Results showed a cost-effective in-situ phytoremediation technique to remove TC from wastewater. (15)
• Antinociceptive / Anti-Inflammatory / Essential Oil: Study evaluated the antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of C. zizanioides essential oil in rodents. EO at 50 and 100 mg/kg significantly reduced the number of writhes (51.9 and 64.9%, respectively) and the number of paw licks during phase 2 (56.7 and 86.2%, respectively) of a formalin model. In paw edema test, 100 mg/kg of EO inhibited all three phases of edema equally well, suggesting a non-selective inhibitory effect on the release or action of these mediators. (see constituents above) (17)
• Bioremediation of Uranium Mill Tailings: Study evaluated the uranium immobilization potential of vetiver grass under simulated conditions using complex tailings. Results showed the plant could bioremediate up to 49% of the uranium at the 90th day of experiment. The remediation efficiency of vetiver increased with time and the uranium was predominantly localized in the roots. (18)
• De-Fluoridation Efficiency: Consumption of fluoridated water (>1.5mg/L) leads to fluorosis which has no cure. Of the 1.21 billion living in India, 62 million suffer from fluorosis. Study evaluated the de-fluoridation efficiency of C. zizainoides and Ocimum tenuiflorum leaves alone and in combination. Results showed 70%-40% de-fluoridation in C. zizainoides treated water. Fresh Ocimum tenuiflorum leaves showed fluoride reduction from 60%-30%, and adsorbent combination of 1:2 showed maximum reduction of 89% in 1 mg/L solution. (19)
• Analgesic / Anti-Inflammatory: Study evaluated an ethanolic extract of V. zizainoides in Wistar rats and Swiss albino mice showed analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity possible mediated through central and peripheral mechanisms. (20)
• Antihyperglycemic / Roots: Study evaluated an ethanol extract of roots of V. zizainoides for anti- hyperglycemic activity in alloxan induced diabetic rats. Results showed significant reduction of blood glucose levels. The antihyperglycemic effects were compared with those of glibenclamide. (21)
• Biosynthesis of Nanoparticles: Study reports on a simple biological and ecofriendly method for the synthesis of silver and gold nanoparticles using Chrysopogon zizainoides. The nanoparticles can have clinical use as antibacterial, antioxidant, and cytotoxic agent and can be used for biomedical applications. (22)
• Essential Oil / Roots: Essential oil is extracted from roots by steam distillation; freshly harvested roots giving higher yield than stored roots, decreasing with increased period of storage. Low recovery of traditionally distilled oil fetches highest price in the perfumery market. Oil has been attributed various properties i.e., anti-inflammatory, anti-septic, aphrodisiac, cicatrizant, nervine, sedative, tonic and vulnerary. (23) Over 150 compounds have been isolated and characterized from vetiver oil. The major portion of the oil consists of sesquiterpene alcohol. (24) The chemical composition of vetiver essential oils from nine countries i.e., Brazil, China, Haiti, India, Java, Madagascar, Mexico, Reunion, and Salvador yielded 110 compounds, with characteristic constituents of ß-vetispirene (1.6-4.5%), khusimol (3.4-13.7%), vetiselineol (1.3-7.8%), and α-vetinone (2.5-6.3%). (25)
• Antibacterial / Antileishmanial / Cytotoxic / Root Essential Oil: Study evaluated the antibacterial, antiparasitic, and cytotoxic potentialities of C. zizanioides root essential oil. Major compounds identified were khusimol (30.0%), ß-eudesmol (10.8%), α-muurolene (6.0%), and patchouli alcohol (5.6%). The EO exhibited optimal antibacterial activity against Prevotella nigrescens, P. melaninogenica, Fusobacterium nucleatum, and Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans with MICs between 22 and 62.5 µg/mL and MBCs between 22 and 400 µg/mL. The EO was highly active against L. amazonensis promastigote and amastigote forms and T. cruzi trypomastigote. Results suggest potential of EO for development of new antimicrobial, antileishmanial and antitrypanosomal drugs. (27)
• Cytotoxic Potential of Longifolene: Study of ethanol extract of roots by column chromatography isolated a pure compound, longifolene. Longifolene exhibited cytotoxic potential using MTT assay on prostate (DU-145) IC50 78.64 µg/mL, oral (SCC-29B) cancer cell line with IC50 88.92 µg/mL, and normal kidney cell line IC50 246.3 µg/mL, with doxorubicin as standard drug. (29)
• Acute Toxicity Study: Acute toxicity study in Swiss albino mice using doses of 5 - 5000 mg/kg showed no mortality. LD50 was found to be 5000 mg/kg (ED50 500 mg/kg). (30)
• Nootropic Activity: Study evaluated the protective effects of ethanolic and aqueous extracts of vetivera zizanioids (500mg/kg) in scopolamine induced memory and learning impairment using Elevated Plus Maze method. The EEVZ and AEVZ (500mg/kg) orally for 28 days showed highly significant (p<0.001) protective effect and equal to Piracetam. (30)
• Bioremediation of Unconventional Water: Study showed that due to its unique characteristics, vetiver grass can be useful in phytoremediation of unconventional water, especially waste water. The reduction of contaminants in waste water can be related to the interactions between (1) the root-released oxygen in the rhizosphere; (2) the root-based uptake of nutrients from the wastewater; (3) the existence of an appropriate surface area for the attached microbial growth; and (4) the root-exuded organic carbon. (31)
• Cytotoxicity / Human Epithelial Cervical Cancer Cells: Study evaluated the cytotoxicity effect of V. zizanioides or vetiver oil on HeLa cells (continuous cell line from cervical cancer epithelial cells. The vetiver oil showed cytotoxicity effects against HeLa cells for 24 hours in a dose-dependent manner. Vetiver oil at 0.02% showed highest cell proliferation inhibition (96.304%). (32)
• Prevention of Soil Erosion: The effects of vetiver on the hydrophysical properties of soils and infiltration rate have been determined. The sowing of vetiver affected the infiltration characteristics of the soil. Slope protected by the plant diminished its filtration rate, related to the compaction caused by plant roots. Study demonstrated that the plantation of vetiver is effective in stabilizing and preventing slope soil erosion caused by severe rainfall events. (33)
• Toxicological Evaluation / Roots: Study evaluated the oral acute and sub-acute toxicity (28) days of methanolic extract of Vetiveria zizanioides roots in Wistar albino rats of both sexes. Single oral dose of 5g/kbw was used with 14-day observation. In sub-acute toxicity study, doses of 175, 550, and 1750 mg/kg daily were used for 28 days. Treatment with the ME caused no toxic signs or deaths, no alteration of body weight, food or water consumption, and no significant changes in hematological and biochemical parameters, and no histopathological findings. The no-observed adverse-effect level for MEVZ is 5 g/kg for rats in the study. Results suggest consumption of MEZV for medicinal purposes is safe. (34)
Availability
- Wild-crafted.
- Plants, capsules, roots, powders in the cybermarket. |
